Ascertaining the Presence of Genetic Modification in Seeds, Processed Food, and Feed Products in Namibia
Keywords:
DNA1, 35S2, NOS3, CAMV4, GMOs5, GM Products6
Abstract
The study aimed to assess whether the seeds in Namibia were derived from genetic modifications and whether grains, processed foods, and feed products contain genetically modified (GM) content. A multistage probability random sampling strategy was used to collect samples from eight regions: Khomas, Zambezi, Ohangwena, Omusati, Otjozondjupa, Kavango East, Kavango West, and Oshikoto. A total of 20 maize food samples were randomly sampled from Khomas; 2021 (5), Otjozondjupa; 2020 (2), Omusati; 2021 (1), Oshikoto; 2015 (3), Ohangwena; 2015 (2), Zambezi; 2020 (2), Kavango East; 2020 (1), and 2015 (4). A total of five (5) wheat food samples were obtained from Kavango East in 2015, and one (1) mixture of canola and soy was sampled from Otjozondjupa. In addition, one feed sample was taken from Otjozondjupa. DNA was isolated using the GeneSpin DNA extraction kit. The DNA concentration was confirmed by spectrophotometry using a NanoDrop (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USAtific, USA). The purity of the DNA was confirmed through visualization using agarose TBE gel electrophoresis. Screening for the adventitious presence of GM content, the Eurofins GMO Screen RT IPC (NR) 35S/NOS/ABII kit was used. Most (41.5%) of the maize samples screened for the presence of GMO content showed positive results for food samples. In 2015, all three foods sampled in the Ohangwena region tested positive, while in the Oshikoto region, two samples also contained GM content. All wheat samples tested negative for GMOs during the two years. The overall study shows the prevalence of GMOs in Namibia.
References
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Mahlase, M. H. (2017). Exploring the uptake of genetically modified white maize by smallholder farmers: the case of Hlabisa, South Africa (Master's thesis, University of Cape Town).
Marzia Ingrassia, Simona Bacarella, Pietro Columba, Luca Altamore, & Stefania Chironi. (2017). Traceability and labelling of food products from the consumer perspective. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 58, 865–870. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1758145
Melinda, S., & Hugo, D. G. (2003). Diagnostic research to enable adoption of transgenic crop varieties by smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology, 2(12), 586–595. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2003.000-1112
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Namibia Economist (2013). Namibian maize test positive for GMO. https://economist.com.na/6852/agriculture/namibian-maize-test-positive-for-gmo/
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Rabiei, M., Mehdizadeh, M., Rastegar, H., Vahidi, H., & Alebouyeh, M. (2013). Detection of genetically modified maize in processed foods sold commercially in Iran by qualitative PCR. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR, 12(1), 25–30.
Randhawa, G., Singh, M., & Sood, P. (2016). DNA-based Methods for Detection of Genetically Modified Events in Food and Supply Chain. Current Science, 110(6), 1000. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v110/i6/1000-1009
Redenbaugh, K. (2014). Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781498710626
Ricroch, A. E., Martin-Laffon, J., Rault, B., Pallares, V. C., & Kuntz, M. (2022). Next biotechnological plants for addressing global challenges: The contribution of transgenesis and new breeding techniques. New Biotechnology, 66, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2021.09.001
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Rostoks, N., Grantiņa-Ieviņa, L., Ieviņa, B., Evelone, V., Valciņa, O., & Aleksejeva, I. (2019). Genetically modified seeds and plant propagating material in Europe: Potential routes of entrance and current status. Heliyon, 5(2), e01242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01242
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Sedgwick, P. (2015). Multistage sampling. BMJ, h4155. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4155
Terzi̇ Aksoy, B., & Ateş Sönmezoğlu, Ö. (2022). Comparison of Modified DNA Isolation Methods for the Detection of GMO in Processed Foods. International Journal of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, 5(3), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.38001/ijlsb.1166275
Viljoen, C., & Chetty, L. (2011). A case study of GM maize gene flow in South Africa. Environmental Sciences Europe, 23(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-4715-23-8
Yu, Y. (2021). The study of the impact of genetically modified soybean imports on China’s food safety management. International Journal of Metrology and Quality Engineering, 12, 18. https://doi.org/10.1051/ijmqe/2021016
Zehr, U. B. (2010). Biotechnological Advances. Springer Science & Business Media, 1-245.
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Ala-Kokko, K., Lanier Nalley, L., Shew, A. M., Tack, J. B., Chaminuka, P., Matlock, M. D., & D’Haese, M. (2021). Economic and ecosystem impacts of GM maize in South Africa. Global Food Security, 29, 100544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100544
Al-Salameen, F., Kumar, V., Al-Aqeel, H., Al-Hashash, H., & Hejji, A. B. (2012). Detection of genetically modified DNA in fresh and processed foods sold in Kuwait. GM Crops & Food, 3(4), 283–288. https://doi.org/10.4161/gmcr.21364
Bawa, A. S., & Anilakumar, K. R. (2013). Genetically modified foods: Safety, risks and public concerns—a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 50(6), 1035–1046. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0899-1
Bedö, Z., Rakszegi, M., Láng, L., Gebruers, K., Piironen, V., Lafiandra, D., Ward, J., Phillips, A., & Shewry, P. R. (2009). Combining bioactive components with conventional targets in plant breeding programmes. In HEALTHGRAIN Methods (pp. 263–272). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-891127-70-0.50022-4
Borisjuk, N., Kishchenko, O., Eliby, S., Schramm, C., Anderson, P., Jatayev, S., Kurishbayev, A., & Shavrukov, Y. (2019). Genetic Modification for Wheat Improvement: From Transgenesis to Genome Editing. BioMed Research International, 2019, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6216304
Bouwer, G. (2020). A Framework for Effective Bt Maize IRM Programs: Incorporation of Lessons Learned From Busseola fusca Resistance Development. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 8, 717. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00717
CTAB DNA Extraction Protocol of P. pruinosa v1. (2017). [Preprint]. https://doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.icdcas6
Curtis, T., & Halford, N. G. (2014). Food security: The challenge of increasing wheat yield and the importance of not compromising food safety. Annals of Applied Biology, 164(3), 354–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12108
FAO. (2015). Steady increase in incidents of low levels of GM crops in traded food and feed. https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/216311/icode/
Farinós, G. P., Hernández‐Crespo, P., Ortego, F., & Castañera, P. (2018). Monitoring of Sesamia nonagrioides resistance to MON 810 maize in the European Union: Lessons from a long‐term harmonized plan. Pest Management Science, 74(3), 557–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.4735
Gachet, E., Martin, G. G., Vigneau, F., & Meyer, G. (1998). Detection of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) by PCR: A brief review of methodologies available. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 9(11–12), 380–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(99)00002-3
Gilissen, L. J. W. J., & Smulders, M. J. M. (2021). Gluten quantity and quality in wheat and in wheat-derived products. In Biotechnological Strategies for the Treatment of Gluten Intolerance (pp. 97–129). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821594-4.00008-6
Granja, R., & Ueno N. M. (2023). Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their application in Brazilian agriculture and consumer products, International Bar Association, Chancery House, 53-64 Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1QS.
Grantina-Ievina, L., Ievina, B., Evelone, V., Berga, S., Kovalcuka, L., Bergspica, I., Jakovele, A., Malisevs, A., Valcina, O., Rodze, I., & Rostoks, N. (2019). Potential risk evaluation for unintended entry of genetically modified plant Propagating material in Europe through import of seeds and animal feed – the experience of Latvia. GM Crops & Food, 10(3), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2019.1638721
ISAAA. (2019). Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops in 2019: Biotech Crops Drive SocioEconomic Development and Sustainable Environment in the New Frontier. ISAAA Brief No. 55. ISAAA: Ithaca, NY.
ISTA. (2010). Seed Testing International News bulletin. Zurichstrasse 50. CH-8303, Basserdorf, Switzerland.
Jacobsen, S.-E., Sørensen, M., Pedersen, S. M., & Weiner, J. (2013). Feeding the world: Genetically modified crops versus agricultural biodiversity. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 33(4), 651–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0138-9
James, R. R., & Pitts-Singer, T. L. (Eds.). (2008). Bee pollination in agricultural ecosystems. Oxford University Press.
Jeon, S. Y. (2023). Managing risk in the regulatory state of the South: The case of GM wheat in Argentina. Review of International Political Economy, 30(4), 1282–1306. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2022.2097287
Karalis, D. T., Karalis, T., Karalis, S., & Kleisiari, A. S. (2020). Genetically Modified Products, Perspectives and Challenges. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.7306
Kavishe, F. F., Chimwamurombe, P., & Kennedy, J. (2022). A Survey of Genetically Modified Foods and Feed in Namibian Supermarkets. Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 2(8), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.47760/cognizance.2022.v02i08.003
Kruger, M., Van Rensburg, J. B. J., & Van Den Berg, J. (2012). Transgenic Bt maize: Farmers’ perceptions, refuge compliance and reports of stem borer resistance in South Africa. Journal of Applied Entomology, 136(1–2), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2011.01616.x
Lal, R. (2016). Feeding 11 billion on 0.5 billion hectare of area under cereal crops. Food and Energy Security, 5(4), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.99
Lucht, J. (2015). Public Acceptance of Plant Biotechnology and GM Crops. Viruses, 7(8), 4254–4281. https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082819
Mahlase, M. H. (2017). Exploring the uptake of genetically modified white maize by smallholder farmers: the case of Hlabisa, South Africa (Master's thesis, University of Cape Town).
Marzia Ingrassia, Simona Bacarella, Pietro Columba, Luca Altamore, & Stefania Chironi. (2017). Traceability and labelling of food products from the consumer perspective. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 58, 865–870. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1758145
Melinda, S., & Hugo, D. G. (2003). Diagnostic research to enable adoption of transgenic crop varieties by smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology, 2(12), 586–595. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2003.000-1112
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (2005). National Agricultural Support Services Programme (NASSP). NASSP Report No. x/2003. http://the-eis.com/elibrary/sites/default/files/downloads/literature/Namibia_Draft%20Seed%20Policy.pdf
Musa Maryam, B. (2017). The Role of Biotechnology in Food Production and Processing. Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2(6), 113. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20170206.14
Namibia Economist (2013). Namibian maize test positive for GMO. https://economist.com.na/6852/agriculture/namibian-maize-test-positive-for-gmo/
Noori, F., Etesami, H., Noori, S., Forouzan, E., Salehi Jouzani, G., & Malboobi, M. A. (2021). Whole genome sequence of Pantoea agglomerans ANP8, a salinity and drought stress–resistant bacterium isolated from alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) root nodules. Biotechnology Reports, 29, e00600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2021.e00600
O’Brien, C., & Arathi, H. S. (2018). Bee genera, diversity and abundance in genetically modified canola fields. GM Crops & Food, 9(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2018.1445470
Pacheco Coello, R., Pestana Justo, J., Factos Mendoza, A., & Santos Ordoñez, E. (2017). Comparison of three DNA extraction methods for the detection and quantification of GMO in Ecuadorian manufactured food. BMC Research Notes, 10(1), 758. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-017-3083-x
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Pleasants, J. M., & Oberhauser, K. S. (2013). Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: Effect on the monarch butterfly population. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 6(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4598.2012.00196.x
Rabiei, M., Mehdizadeh, M., Rastegar, H., Vahidi, H., & Alebouyeh, M. (2013). Detection of genetically modified maize in processed foods sold commercially in Iran by qualitative PCR. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR, 12(1), 25–30.
Randhawa, G., Singh, M., & Sood, P. (2016). DNA-based Methods for Detection of Genetically Modified Events in Food and Supply Chain. Current Science, 110(6), 1000. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v110/i6/1000-1009
Redenbaugh, K. (2014). Safety Assessment of Genetically Engineered Fruits and Vegetables. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781498710626
Ricroch, A. E., Martin-Laffon, J., Rault, B., Pallares, V. C., & Kuntz, M. (2022). Next biotechnological plants for addressing global challenges: The contribution of transgenesis and new breeding techniques. New Biotechnology, 66, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2021.09.001
Rosa, S. F., Gatto, F., Angers-Loustau, A., Petrillo, M., Kreysa, J., & Querci, M. (2016). Development and applicability of a ready-to-use PCR system for GMO screening. Food Chemistry, 201, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.007
Rostoks, N., Grantiņa-Ieviņa, L., Ieviņa, B., Evelone, V., Valciņa, O., & Aleksejeva, I. (2019). Genetically modified seeds and plant propagating material in Europe: Potential routes of entrance and current status. Heliyon, 5(2), e01242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01242
Schütte, G., Eckerstorfer, M., Rastelli, V., Reichenbecher, W., Restrepo-Vassalli, S., Ruohonen-Lehto, M., Saucy, A.-G. W., & Mertens, M. (2017). Herbicide resistance and biodiversity: Agronomic and environmental aspects of genetically modified herbicide-resistant plants. Environmental Sciences Europe, 29(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-016-0100-y
Sedgwick, P. (2015). Multistage sampling. BMJ, h4155. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4155
Terzi̇ Aksoy, B., & Ateş Sönmezoğlu, Ö. (2022). Comparison of Modified DNA Isolation Methods for the Detection of GMO in Processed Foods. International Journal of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, 5(3), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.38001/ijlsb.1166275
Viljoen, C., & Chetty, L. (2011). A case study of GM maize gene flow in South Africa. Environmental Sciences Europe, 23(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/2190-4715-23-8
Yu, Y. (2021). The study of the impact of genetically modified soybean imports on China’s food safety management. International Journal of Metrology and Quality Engineering, 12, 18. https://doi.org/10.1051/ijmqe/2021016
Zehr, U. B. (2010). Biotechnological Advances. Springer Science & Business Media, 1-245.
Published
2024-01-18
How to Cite
Mungeyi, P., Chimwamurombe, P., & Kangueehi, G. N. (2024). Ascertaining the Presence of Genetic Modification in Seeds, Processed Food, and Feed Products in Namibia. European Journal of Science, Innovation and Technology, 4(1), 15-30. Retrieved from https://ejsit-journal.com/index.php/ejsit/article/view/357
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Copyright (c) 2024 Paulus Mungeyi, Percy Chimwamurombe, Grace Nandesora Kangueehi
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