Organochlorine Levels in Human Milk and Risks to Exposed Breastfed Infants in Nandi County, Kenya
Keywords:
Human Milk, Infants, Organochlorine Pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Risk Assessment
Abstract
Lipophilic persistent organochlorines (OCs) accumulate in the human adipose tissues and exposed lactating mothers can put breastfeeding infants at health risk. The study aimed to estimate the excretion levels of OCs in human milk and potential health risks to exposed breastfed infants. Between February and July 2019, 74 lactating mothers, across Nandi County, volunteered sociodemographic information and human milk samples. Milk lipids and OCs residues were extracted into an n-Hexane: Acetone (3:1) mixture using the Soxhlet technique. Twenty percent of the extract was gravimetrically analyzed to estimate milk lipid content and 80% with not more than 240 mg estimated lipids, was chromatographically purified by eluting through neutral Aluminium Oxide using 170 mL n-Hexane for GC-EI-MS/MS analysis. DDTs and PCBs residues occurred in 70.3% and 68.9% samples respectively while chlordane, endosulfan, and HCHs were each observed in less than 50% samples. The chemicals' average occurrence levels ranged from 0.04 to 7.30 ng/g lw. Statistically, there were no significant, p>0.05, differences in the average levels of OCs across the county, and between maternal parities and age groups. However, the average levels of OCs demonstrated significant, P<0.05, decreases over time in Kenya. The daily intake of chemicals by breastfed infants was computed for each of the sum OC groups. Three (4.05%) infants were exposed to residues of sum indicator PCBs above 20 ng/kg/day, the risk level given by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The findings demonstrated that humans are moderately exposed to banned OCs in Nandi County and therefore underscore the need for effective control and monitoring of the safety of human food from environmental contaminants.
References
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ATSDR. (2005). Toxicological Profile for Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, and Delta-Hexachlorocyclohexane. (Issue August).
ATSDR. (2021). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs). (Issue March).
Ayisi, R. K., & Wakoli, A. B. (2014). Exclusive breastfeeding practice: its implication on nutrition status, growth, and morbidity pattern among infants aged 0-6 months. G.J.B.A.H.S., 3(1), 254–258.
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Charan, J., & Biswas, T. (2013). How to calculate sample size for different study designs in medical research? Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 35(2), 121.
Esteban, M., & Castaño, A. (2009). Non-invasive matrices in human biomonitoring: a review. Environment International, 35(2), 438-449.
Fång, J., Nyberg, E., Winnberg, U., Bignert, A., & Bergman, Å. (2015). Spatial and temporal trends of the Stockholm Convention POPs in mothers’ milk — a global review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(12), 8989–9041.
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Haddad, S., Ayotte, P., & Verner, M. A. (2015). Derivation of exposure factors for infant lactational exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 71(2), 135–140.
Institute of Environmental Studies, V. U. (2014). Global Monitoring Plan on Persistent Organic Pollutants Protocol 2 : Protocol for the Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) and Organochlorine Pesticides (OCP) in Human Milk, Air and Human Serum (Issue November).
Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., & Sreedev, P. (2016). Review Article. Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 9(3–4), 90–100.
Kaigwara, P., Wandiga, S., & Lalah, J. (2002). Pesticides in Kenya. In Pesticide Residues in Coastal Tropical Ecosystems (Issue August).
Kairu, J. K. (1994). Pesticide residues in birds at Lake Nakuru, Kenya. International Journal of Salt Lake Research, 3(1), 31–48.
Kanangire, K. C., Matano, A.-S., Dida, G. O., & Anyona, D. (2015). A Systematic Review of Effects of Emerging pollutants on Human Health and Livelihoods of Population living in the Lake Victoria Basin of Kenya.
Kanja, L. W. (2010). Updating the National Implementation Plan (NIP) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Consultancy on POPs Pesticides Final Draft Report. In University of Nairobi Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology 1.
Kanja, L., Skåre, J. U., Nafstad, I., Maitai, C. K., & L⊘ kken, P. (1986). Organochlorine pesticides in human milk from different areas of Kenya 1983–1985. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A Current Issues, 19(4), 449-464.
Kasozi, G. N., Kiremire, B. T., Bugenyi, F. W. B., Kirsch, N. H., & Nkedi-Kizza, P. (2006). Organochlorine Residues in Fish and Water Samples from Lake Victoria, Uganda. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35(2), 584–589.
Kinyamu, J. K., Kanja, L. W., Skaare, J. U., & Maitho, T. E. (1998). Levels of organochlorine pesticides residues in milk of urban mothers in Kenya. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 60(1998), 732–738.
KNIP. (2014). Republic of Kenya Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources Kenya National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants the Project "Updating of the Kenya National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Conve.
Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques (2nd rev. ed.).
Kyalo, V. (2017). Assessment of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides Residue Levels in Fish from Nandi-Lower Nyando River Sub-Catchment, Kenya. In University of Nairobi (Issue Thesis).
Lalah, J. O., Yugi, P. O., Jumba, I. O., & Wandiga, S. O. (2003). Organochlorine pesticide residues in Tana and Sabaki rivers in Kenya. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 71(2), 298–307.
Linderholm, L., Biague, A., Månsson, F., Norrgren, H., Bergman, Å., & Jakobsson, K. (2010). Human exposure to persistent organic pollutants in West Africa - A temporal trend study from Guinea-Bissau. Environment International, 36(7), 675–682.
Loganathan, B. G., & Kannan, K. (2018). Global Organochiorine Contamination Trnds : An Overvievw. 23(3), 187–191.
Madadi, V. O., Wandiga, S. O., Kanja, L. W., Mirikau, C. W., & Osoro, E. M. (2021). Kenya Report for the POPs Global Monitoring Plan Under UNEP/GEF GMP2 Project.
Makokha, V. A., Ndung’u, A. W., Mungai, T. M., Yan, X., & Wang, J. (2018). Concentrations, Sources, and Risk Assessment of Organohalogen Compounds in Soils from Kiambu to Mombasa, Kenya. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 101(6), 766–772.
Manzetti, S., Van Der Spoel, E. R., & Van Der Spoel, D. (2014). Chemical properties, environmental fate, and degradation of seven classes of pollutants. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 27(5), 713–737.
Mostafalou, S., & Abdollahi, M. (2013). Pesticides and human chronic diseases: Evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 268(2), 157–177.
Müller, M. H. B., Polder, A., Brynildsrud, O. B., Karimi, M., Lie, E., & Manyilizu, W. B. (2017). Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in human breast milk and associated health risks to nursing infants in Northern Tanzania. Environmental Research, 154(September 2016), 425–434.
Mungai, T. M., & Wang, J. (2019). Occurrence and toxicological risk evaluation of organochlorine pesticides from suburban soils of Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16), 1–13.
NCIDP. (2018a). County Government of Nandi, County Integrated Development Plan 2018-2023.
NCIDP. (2018b). Republic of Kenya Nyeri County Intergrated Development Plan 2018- 2022 Department of Finance and Economic Planning.
Ndunda, E. N., Madadi, V. O., & Wandiga, S. O. (2018). Organochlorine pesticide residues in sediment and water from Nairobi River, Kenya: levels, distribution, and ecological risk assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(34), 34510–34518.
Nougadère, A., Sirot, V., Cravedi, J., Vasseur, P., Feidt, C., Fussell, R. J., Hu, R., Leblanc, J., Jean, J., Rivière, G., Sarda, X., Merlo, M., & Hulin, M. (2020). Dietary exposure to pesticide residues and associated health risks in infants and young children – Results of the French infant total diet study. Environment International, 137(December 2019), 105529.
Olisah, C., Okoh, O. O., & Okoh, A. I. (2020). Occurrence of organochlorine pesticide residues in biological and environmental matrices in Africa: A two-decade review. Heliyon, 6(3), e03518.
Oluoch-Otiego, J., Oyoo-Okoth, E., Kiptoo, K. K. G., Chemoiwa, E. J., Ngugi, C. C., Simiyu, G., Omutange, E. S., Ngure, V., & Opiyo, M. A. (2016). PCBs in fish and their cestode parasites in Lake Victoria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188(8).
Omwenga, I., Kanja, L., Nguta, J., Mbaria, J., & Irungu, P. (2016). Organochlorine pesticide residues in farmed fish in Machakos and Kiambu counties, Kenya. Cogent Environmental Science, 2(1), 1153215.
Osoro, E. M., Wandiga, S. O., Abongo, D. A., Madadi, V. O., & Macharia, J. W. (2016). Organochlorine pesticides residues in water and sediment from Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, Kenya. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry, 9(9), 56-63.
PCPB. (2018). Fully Registered Pest Control Products Version 1_2018. 1(Version 1_2018), 1–585.
Phillips, T. M., Seech, A. G., Lee, H., & Trevors, J. T. (2005). Biodegradation of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) by microorganisms. Biodegradation, 16(4), 363–392.
Pihlström, T., Fernández-Alba, A. R., Gamón, M., Amate, C. F., Poulsen, M. E., Lippold, R., & Anastassiades, M. (2019). Method Validation Procedures for Pesticide Residues Analysis in Food and Feed. Sante/12682/2019, 12682(2019), 1–49.
Ritter, L., Solomon, K. ., & Forget, J. (2013). An Assessment Report on: DDT-Aldrin-Dieldrin-Endrin-Chlordane Heptachlor-Hexachlorobenzene Mirex-Toxaphene-Polychlorinated Biphenyls Dioxins and Furans Prepared. In Framework of the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC).
Saoke, P. (2005). Kenya POPs Situation Report: DDT, Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls Physicians for Social Responsibility ( PSR ) - Kenya. November.
Shrestha, B., & Dunn, L. (2020). The Declaration of Helsinki on Medical Research involving Human Subjects: A Review of Seventh Revision. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council, 17(4), 548–552.
Stockholm Convention Secretariat. (2011). Draft revised guidance on the global monitoring plan for persistent organic pollutants.
Thompson, L. A., Darwish, W. S., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S. M., Mizukawa, H., & Ishizuka, M. (2017). Organochlorine pesticide contamination of foods in Africa: incidence and public health significance. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 79(4), 751-764.
Tsygankov, V. Y., Gumovskaya, Y. P., Gumovskiy, A. N., Donets, M. M., Koval, I. P., & Boyarova, M. D. (2019). Bioaccumulation of POPs in human breast milk from south of the Russian Far East and exposure risk to breastfed infants. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(6), 5951–5957.
WHO/UNEP. (2007). Fourth WHO-Coordinated Survey of Human Milk for Persistent Organic Pollutants in Cooperation with UNEP Guidelines for Developing a National Protocol.
WHO. (2010). Persistent Organic Pollutants: Impact on Child Health.
WHO. (2015). Human biomonitoring: facts and figures. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2015. In World Health Organization.
Zeilmaker, M. J., Moermond, C. T. A., Brandon, E., Hoogerhuis, P., Razenberg, L., & Janssen, M. P. M. (2020). Persistent organic pollutants in human milk in the Netherlands. Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu RIVM.
Published
2023-12-28
How to Cite
Birgen, N. K., Kanja, L. W., Maitho, T., & Koech, S. (2023). Organochlorine Levels in Human Milk and Risks to Exposed Breastfed Infants in Nandi County, Kenya. European Journal of Science, Innovation and Technology, 3(6), 330-345. Retrieved from https://ejsit-journal.com/index.php/ejsit/article/view/342
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Copyright (c) 2023 Nehemiah K. Birgen, Laetitia W. Kanja, Timothy Maitho, Sharon Koech
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